The essay explores Sufism as the inward dimension of Islam, rooted in the mutuality of the Ẓāhir (outward) and the Bāṭin (inward) aspects thereof and drawing on the Qur’ān, sunnah, and Miʿrāj.

This essay explores Sufism through the Qur’ānic verse 57:3 – “He is the First, the Last, the Outward (Ẓāhir), and the Inward (Bāṭin)” – to demonstrate how Sufi tradition roots itself in an inward reading of Islamic sources. It will attempt to do a reading of the Sufi tradition and its Prophetic and Qur’ānic sources through the interpretation of the mutuality of the notion of ẓāhir, meaning “outward” or “evident,” and the notion of bāṭin, meaning the “inward” or “intrinsic.” By looking at the Sufi tradition and its sources, specifically the Qur’ān and the sunnah, as well as the event of the Miʿrāj, through this mutuality, the essay will highlight that Sufism is the inward practice of Islam and that its origins and practice are rooted in an inward reading of original Islamic sources.

Introduction to the Sufi Tradition

In order to explain the origins of Sufism, we must first begin by explaining what Sufism is in Islamic tradition. Sufism can be called the mystic or esoteric practice of Islam, where much importance is placed upon piety, introspection, and worship. There are many suggestions about where the name Sufism could be coming from, one opinion being that it comes from the Greek for “wisdom” (sophia), though this word can be also translated directly as ḥikmah in Arabic. Another opinion about the word is that it means “someone who wears wool” in Arabic, originating from the word “wool” (ṣūf). [1] It is said that Sufis of the time wore rough wool garments as a symbol of their renunciation of material possessions and their desire for simplicity. This garment can be observed on miniatures of Sufi figures (see Figure 1).

Sufism is usually associated with “orders” (ṭarīqahs), originating from the word “paths” (ṭuruq) in the Qur’ān. In them, teachers guide students into a journey towards God. The Sufi journey towards God aims to cleanse and transform the soul by effecting tazkiyat al-nafs (purification of the soul) (Q 91:7-9), as well as to facilitate its undergoing some sort of self-realization (taḥqīq) in order to get closer to God who is al-Ḥaqq, the only real and right. [2]

The Mutuality of Ẓāhir-Bāṭin, Outward-Inward

 In Islam, God is understood as both al-Ẓāhir (Outward) and al-Bāṭin (Inward), representing the all-encompassing Truth. Al-Ẓāhir refers to the outward, visible aspects of creation, including empirical knowledge and worldly matters, such as law and science, while al-Bāṭin represents the deeper, spiritual truths, focusing on the unseen and one’s inward path to God. Al-Ẓāhir accommodates rational knowledge accessible to the human mind, while al-Bāṭin involves a profound understanding of the hidden meanings behind actions and events, requiring faith and insight into God’s will. [3] Together, they highlight the dual nature of existence, combining the visible and invisible aspects of divine knowledge. Thus, the mutuality of Ẓāhir-Bāṭin, Outward-Inward can be applied here to interpret Sufism as the inward practice of Islam. This duality will be used in following paragraphs to highlight the essence of Sufism.

The Qur’ān as a Source of Sufism

The Qur’ān is the holy book of Muslims, revealed through a period of 23 years to the Prophet Muḥammad by the angel Gabriel. The Qur’ān is considered to be the word of God by Muslims and is an eternal wisdom for them. It is believed to not have been changed since its revelation fourteen thousand years ago. Much of Muslims’ religious life and conduct, as well as their knowledge of the meaning of the world and Hereafter are informed by the Qur’ān. Thus, this book is the foundation of all Islamic knowledge, encompassing spirituality. practice, and eschatology. [4] While some verses highlight the benevolence and forgiveness of God to motivate repentance, other verses talk about the wrath of God and the horrors of the day of judgment. Between many names of the Qur’ān, there is Umm al-kitāb, the “Mother of Books,” since the Qur’ān is the prototype and most exalted of all books and all written things and, as Muslims believe, eternally contains the summary of all types of knowledge. [5]

The Qur’ān itself mentions that it has deeper meanings than a typical reader immediately understands going through it. In fact, the Qur’ān says that not everyone is capable of understanding its verses except a small minority. Verse 38:29, for instance, says that the Qur’ān was sent down “so that they might reflect upon its verses and those of understanding would be reminded.” This suggests that there is an inward (bāṭin) meaning thereto of which only “those of understanding” are reminded. Who are those who are reminded of the bāṭin, those who understand? According to Seyyed Hossain Nasr, “Only the Sufis have, in fact, been able to cast aside the veil of this celestial bride,” which is of course the Qur’ān. Only the Sufis have been able to see through the veil of the Qur’ān, which hides from the eyes of many – except the Sufis. [6]

The Qur’ān also mentions those “who possess the “inner heart” (lubb) in multiple places. Q 3:7 ends by saying that only those who possess the “inner heart” will understand the message and the special knowledge with which one can draw spiritually proximate to the divine. Moreover, Q 3:190 highlights that in Creation, day and night, “there are signs for those who possess the ‘inner heart.’” This fact further highlights the inward nature of revelation and the divine. This small minority that possesses the “inner heart” are arguably the Sufis who practice the esoteric and inward part of religion and busy themselves with drawing spiritually proximate to God. [7]

Many Sufi practices are also rooted in the Qur’ān. While not everything mentioned in the Qur’ān is farḍ, hence obligatory, the Qur’ān recommends many acts to Muslims, including dhikr – the recitation of the names of God and remembrance of Him (Q 33:41). Dhikr can be considered to be the essence of Sufism, [8] and sits at the heart of many Sufi ṭarīqahs, wherein those belonging to the order will be advised to repeat a certain dhikr in specific numbers every day. Similarly, much of the methodology of Sufism is rooted in the Qur’ān. Essential to Sufism is the concept of piety, or taqwā. Sufis perform taqwā in such acts as repentance, repeated fasting outside the month of Ramadan (where it is compulsory to fast), and rejection of material possessions and wordly pleasures. The act most beloved by God is piety, and His most refined or special servants are those who embody it. [9] This is a definite message in the Qur’ān, and it further highlights the Qur’ān’s importance for the Sufi tradition.

The Sunnah as a Source of Sufism

The Qur’ān and the sunnah, i.e. the prophetic sayings and practices of Muḥammad, are the major sacred sources of Islam. The Qur’ān highlights the special status of Muḥammad and his spiritual (and moral) proximity to God in several verses, including 4:80 and 48:10, where God proclaims Muḥammad as God’s most-beloved servant. [10] Hence, to Muslims, his behaviour and sayings become very important and beloved. For example, his recommendations for ways of eating, praying, and even brushing the hair, are important and practised by many Muslims, solely because they are his recommendation. Prophet Muḥammad is also considered to be the first teacher of Islam, as he taught Muslims how to perform the acts obligatory to them and those recommended to them in the Qur’ān. Thus, it can be said that the sunnah lies at the very heart of Islamic spirituality, as it is by following the example of the Prophet that a Muslim and a Sufi can cultivate virtues that the Prophet embodied in their highest form and that it is by following these virtues that one can become spiritually closer to God. [11] Moreover, Q 3:31 clearly states “If you (really) love Allāh, then follow me (i.e. Muḥammad), and Allāh will love you and forgive you your sins.” One interpretation of this verse is that in order to get spiritually closer to God, which is the primary aim of Sufism, one must love and follow the ways of the Prophet. Thus, Islam and Sufism would be considered incomplete without the practices of the Prophet.

Frithjof Schuon even states that the “concrete content,” and hence the major source of Sufism, is nothing but the Prophet’s practice and spirituality. [12] However, a very important question arises here as to the legitimacy and relatability of the behaviour of a human who lived fourteen thousand years ago, as well as its applicability to the conditions of the 21^st century. I argue that the Ẓāhir-Bāṭin, Outward-Inward duality can be, and in fact is, applicable to this question. Outwardly, Muḥammad might seem like a legislator or ruler. Inwardly and essentially, however, he embodies esotericism at every level. [13] One must not, of course, literally dress as the Prophet did in 7th-century Arabia – not only because of differing local weather conditions, but also because one’s particular dress code is not necessarily an expression of the inward (bāṭin) nature of the sunnah. Also, one cannot, and must not, fight the way the Prophet did in the 7th century, when courts and nation-states did not exist. However, one can do one’s best to attempt to embody his piety, his gentle speech, and his motivation for unwavering justice. I argue that this is the Sufi way of following the sunnah, as Sufism focuses on its inward, rather than outward, dimension. 

The Mir’aj and its Importance for Sufism

The Isrā and Miʿrāj, also known as the “Nocturnal Journey” and “Ascension” respectively, refer to a series of miraculous events in which the Prophet Muḥammad journeyed through the seven heavens to reach the Divine Presence and then returned to the created order. Brief mentions of it can be found in Q 17:1 and Q 53:13-18. The notion of Miʿrāj illustrates the possibility of an individual transitioning from the physical plane of being to a state that transcends temporal and spatial confines. This concept includes the meaning of one’s being elevated from the earth to the supernatural realm, or being transported from the earth to the supernatural realm. A number of religious traditions have narratives of the ascension of prophets or selected individuals to different otherworldly or supernatural realms. [14]

The Isrā and Miʿrāj are two events that follow each other and illustrate the soul’s journey toward the Divine. The Isrā recounts the Prophet’s remarkable journey from Mecca to Jerusalem, which is then followed by the Miʿrāj, where he ascends through the heavens to meet God. In Jerusalem, he led prayers alongside several blessed prophets, such as Abraham, Moses, and Jesus, right on the Temple Mount. After that, he ascended and journeyed through the seven heavens to have closer meetings with the major prophets. Many Muslims believe that during this incredible ascent, Muḥammad not only beheld the Throne of God but also had a personal encounter with Allah, engaging in conversation with Him. The Miʿrāj is seen as Muḥammad’s “initiation rite,” which involved the opening of his breast and the cleansing of his heart. [15] Muḥammad is accompanied by a flying camel-like animal throughout this journey named Burāq; there are many depictions of art including Muḥammad as seated on Burāq (See figure 2).

The Miʿrāj is regarded as a miracle attributed to the Prophet Muḥammad. It is considered an experience that is exclusively his and is not something that can be physically experienced by any other believers. Rather, one can undergo it in an analogous and purely spiritual manner. That is, many a Sufi mystic interpret the “Nocturnal Journey” and “Ascension” symbolically and aim to achieve their semblance by exploring the inward dimension of being. For example, for Ibn ʿArabī, the prophetic “Ascension” symbolises the pinnacle of one’s spiritual path. It represents the ultimate stages of one’s inner journey that every Sufi saint or mystical “knower” must undergo in order to fully inherit the profound spiritual wisdom of Muḥammad. [16] Scholars have long viewed these events not only as a manifestation of the Prophet’s spiritual journey but also as an ideal embodiment of the Sufi path. This fact further highlights that, without the sunnah, there is no path to genuine Islamic spirituality. According to Sufis, it was the Prophet who opened the gateway to the higher worlds during his “Nocturnal Journey,” making it possible for the Islamic community to attain spiritual communion with the divine. [17] He remains the sole keeper of that gateway and the chosen one who can guide Muslims on their spiritual journey toward God, which shows the sunnah’s importance for the tradition of Sufism.

Conclusion

In conclusion, the Qur’ān, sunnah, and Miʿrāj are important theoretical and practical sources for Sufism. Through the mutuality of the concepts of the Ẓāhir-Bāṭin, Outward-Inward, we can understand the Sufi perspectives on these sources in a better way. The Qur’ān calls out to “those of understanding,” those who possess the “inner heart,” highlighting its intimation toward the meaning and practice of Sufism. It also gives an enormous importance to “piety” (taqwā), which is a very important Islamic and Sufi concept as far as achieving spiritual communion with God is concerned. Meanwhile, the sunnah, as reflected in the life and teachings of the Prophet Muḥammad, offers a rich foundation for genuine Islamic spirituality, particularly regarding its inner (bāṭin) dimension. Additionally, the Miʿrāj symbolises the pinnacle of Muḥammad’s spiritual ascent toward God, serving as both a literal event and a metaphor for the Sufi’s ultimate goal: spiritual communion with God.